After leading England through the tumultuous years following King Charles I’s execution, Oliver Cromwell grew increasingly frustrated with the inefficiency and divisions within Parliament. In 1653, he took the unprecedented step of dissolving Parliament by force, believing that it was corrupt and unable to govern effectively. He then declared himself Lord Protector, establishing a new form of government known as the Protectorate.
Though England had abolished its monarchy, Cromwell’s rule quickly began to resemble that of a king—but without a crown. As Lord Protector, he wielded near-absolute power, controlling both the government and the military. While the Protectorate was technically a republic, with a written constitution (the Instrument of Government), Cromwell held ultimate authority, making him, in effect, a monarch in all but name. He lived in Whitehall Palace, signed documents in a manner similar to a king, and even had an elaborate installation ceremony resembling a royal coronation.
To maintain order and enforce his rule, Cromwell divided England into military districts, appointing eleven army generals as Major-Generals to govern different regions of the country. Each general was tasked with enforcing strict Puritan laws, maintaining security, and collecting taxes. Under their rule, England became a highly regimented society. The Major-Generals suppressed Royalist uprisings, enforced moral reforms, and ensured that Cromwell’s authority remained unchallenged.
Cromwell's rule was marked by strict Puritan reforms, including banning certain forms of entertainment such as theater, dancing, and gambling. He also restricted Christmas celebrations and promoted a rigid moral code throughout the country. However, he also implemented progressive policies, such as religious tolerance for Protestant sects, and strengthened England’s position as a dominant European power, particularly through victories in wars against Spain and the Netherlands.
Despite his military success and strong leadership, Cromwell’s rule remained controversial. Many in England resented the strict military oversight, and his heavy-handed governance alienated both Royalists and moderate Parliamentarians. Over time, his Protectorate lost support, and opposition to his regime grew. When Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell attempted to take over as Lord Protector but lacked the strength and authority to maintain control. Within two years, the monarchy was restored under King Charles II, and England returned to being a kingdom once more.
Cromwell's Protectorate experiment was an unusual and short-lived period in English history—one that demonstrated how a republic could, paradoxically, still function as a military dictatorship. Though he never took the title of king, his rule had all the trappings of monarchy, proving that even without a crown, absolute power could still take hold.
